Volume 18 (2025) Download Cover Page

Exploring the Role of Digital Empathy and Emotional Intelligence in Reducing Cyberbullying Behaviors Among High School Students in Kuwait

Article Number: e2025516  |  Available Online: October 2025  |  DOI: 10.22521/edupij.2025.18.516

Fathi J. Al-Qallaf

Abstract

Background/purpose. With the rapid growth of digital engagement among adolescents, cyberbullying has become a significant challenge that threatens students’ psychological well-being, peer relationships, and the overall school climate. This study examines whether digital empathy and emotional intelligence can serve as protective factors against cyberbullying behaviors among high school students in Kuwait, a context where research on digital behaviors remains limited.

Materials/methods. A quantitative correlational research design was employed, using a stratified random sample of 404 students from grades 10 to 12 across six educational regions. The researcher developed and validated three self-report scales to measure digital empathy, emotional intelligence, and cyberbullying behaviors. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlations, t-tests, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM). The SEM model demonstrated an excellent fit, with indices indicating a good fit (RMSEA = 0.045, CFI = 0.984, TLI = 0.976). Mediation analysis further revealed that cyberbullying involvement was partially mediated by both emotional intelligence and digital empathy.

Results. Significant negative correlations were observed between both digital empathy and emotional intelligence with cyberbullying (p < 0.01). Students with stronger emotional regulation and higher levels of digital empathy reported reduced involvement in cyberbullying. SEM results supported the hypothesized model, confirming both direct and mediated pathways among the study variables.

Conclusion. The findings demonstrated that digital empathy and emotional intelligence play a protective role in reducing cyberbullying behaviors. The study provides a solid foundation for school-based preventive interventions. More importantly, it contributes to educational policy by underscoring the necessity of embedding digital citizenship and emotional education into national curricula, highlighting the importance of teacher training and professional development to foster empathy and emotional regulation, and offering policymakers a roadmap for designing comprehensive strategies that integrate social-emotional learning to promote safer and more inclusive digital environments.

Keywords: Digital Empathy, Emotional Intelligence, Cyberbullying, High School Students in Kuwait

References

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T

Aljazzaf, M. I. (2017). Effect of social media applications on Kuwaiti teenagers: An empirical study. American Journal of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 5(4), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajams-5-4-5

Al-Kandari, A. (2023). Gifted education in the State of Kuwait: Review from a learning perspective. Cogent Education, 10(1), Article 2224518. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2224518

Al-Kandari, A. J., & Dashti, F. A. (2022). Cyberbullying among adolescents in private schools in Kuwait: The impact of parental monitoring and school climate. International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 32(4), 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJIL.2022.125770

Alqahtani, A. M., Alqarni, T. M., Alshehri, M. H., Alasmari, M. M., & Mahzari, M. A. (2023). Prevalence and related risks of cyberbullying and its effects on adolescents' psychological status in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. BMC Psychiatry, 23, Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04542-0

Alshammari, M. M., Alansari, B. M., & Alzahrani, R. M. (2023). Cyberbullying prevalence and predictors among middle school students in Kuwait. Global Journal of Health Science, 15(1), 55–66. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v15n1p55

Amashi, R., Baligar, P., & Vijayalakshmi, M. (2023). Digital games to develop empathy in students: A scoping review. In 10th Research in Engineering Education Symposium: Connecting Research-Policy-Practice for Transforming Engineering Education, REES 2024 (pp. 163–172). Research in Engineering Education Network. https://doi.org/10.52202/073963-0021

Aphinanh, S., Chatwattana, P., & Nilsook, P. (2024). Development of digital literacy and digital empathy with micro-learning via activities on metaverse. Higher Education Studies, 14(2), 79–79. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v14n2p79

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3

Barlińska, J., Szuster, A., & Winiewski, M. (2013). Cyberbullying among adolescents: The role of the victim and the aggressor’s perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 39(5), 461–474. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21487

Bar-On, R. (2006). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Psicothema, 18(Suppl), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2005.06.002

Buabbas, A. J., Al-Mass, M. A., Al-Tawari, B. A., & Buabbas, M. A. (2020). The detrimental impacts of smart technology device overuse among school students in Kuwait: A cross-sectional survey. BMC Pediatrics, 20, Article 357. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-020-02258-5

Calvete, E., Orue, I., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ profile. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1128–1135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.017

Cao, G., Wei, X., Liu, J., & Li, X. (2023). The association between childhood trauma and adolescent cyberbullying: Chain mediating roles of emotional intelligence and online social anxiety. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, Article 1184382. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1184382

Cheng, Y., Newman, P. A., Qu, H., Mbulo, L., Chatterji, M., & Rice, E. (2022). School engagement and cyberbullying among adolescents: A global perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), Article 13885. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192113885

Choi, M. (2016). A concept analysis of digital citizenship for democratic citizenship education in the Internet age. Theory and Research in Social Education, 44(4), 565–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2016.1210549

Cook, C., & Glenn, A. (2021). Digital empathy: Exploring its place in online education and digital citizenship. Journal of Digital Learning, 14(2), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdl.2021.03.004

Del Rey, R., Casas, J. A., Ortega-Ruiz, R., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Scheithauer, H., Smith, P., Thompson, F., & Barkoukis, V. (2015). Structural validation and cross-cultural robustness of the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire. Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.03.065

DQ Institute. (2017). Digital intelligence: A conceptual framework & methodology for teaching and measuring digital citizenship. https://www.dqinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/DQ-Framework-White-Paper-Ver1-31Aug17.pdf

Duarte, A., Surugiu, R., Moraru, M., & Marinescu, V. (2023). Digital empathy in online education: A comparison study between Portugal and Romania. Comunicar: Media Education Research Journal, 31(76), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.3916/c76-2023-09

Elipe, P., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Casas, J. A. (2023). Emotional intelligence and school bullying victimization in children and youth students: A meta-analysis. Children, 10(3), 488. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10030488

Faaradila, F., & Putri, R. (2023). The relationship between emotional intelligence and verbal bullying in adolescent bullies. Asian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 4(2), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-024-00268-z

Friesem, Y. (2016). Developing digital empathy: A holistic approach to media literacy research methods. In M. N. Yildiz & J. Keengwe (Eds.), Handbook of research on media literacy in the digital age (pp. 145–160). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-9667-9.ch007

Gázquez, J. J., Pérez-Fuentes, M. C., Molero Jurado, M. M., & Martos Martínez, Á. (2022). Emotional intelligence as a protective factor against cyberbullying in adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010122

Goleman, D. (2020). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ (25th anniversary ed.). Bantam. https://doi.org/10.1108/09696470510634890

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Hamm, M. P., Newton, A. S., Chisholm, A., Shulhan, J., Milne, A., Sundar, P., ... & Hartling, L. (2015). Prevalence and effect of cyberbullying on children and young people: A scoping review of social media studies. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 770–777. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0944

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 14(3), 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2010.494133

Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2019). Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyberbullying (2nd ed.). Corwin Press. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483391594

Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

Kelani, A. S. F., & Abozeid, A. G. A. (2023). The effectiveness of a professional intervention program in the method of social group work to develop digital intelligence skills for preparatory stage students. Journal of the Faculty of Social Work for Social Studies and Research, 32(1), 243–284. https://doi.org/10.21608/jfss.2023.303178

Keles, B., McCrae, N., & Grealish, A. (2020). A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851

Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(1), S13–S20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.018

Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2021). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 328–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000300

Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & McCord, A. (2019). A developmental approach to cyberbullying: Prevalence and protective factors. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.02.009

Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & McCord, A. (2022). A developmental perspective on cyberbullying and social media. Current Opinion in Psychology, 45, Article 101311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101311

Kumar, K. (2020). Emotional intelligence of higher secondary students. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 8(3), 43–49. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1256012.pdf

Kumar, S., & Geetha, G. (2023). A study on emotional intelligence among secondary school students. International Journal of Academic Research and Development, 8(2), 16–18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375626135

Maneenil, S., Jamsai, P., & Chuensombat, S. (2024). Development of an interaction simulation video to enhance digital empathy skills. In The Asian Conference on Education 2023: Official Conference Proceedings (pp. 99–108). https://doi.org/10.22492/issn.2186-5892.2024.9

Marinescu, V., Duarte, A., Surugiu, R., & Moraru, M. (2023). Digital empathy in online education: A comparison study between Portugal and Romania. Comunicar: Media Education Research Journal, 31(76), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.3916/C76-2023-09

Martínez-Martí, M. L., & Ruch, W. (2017). Character strengths and well-being across the life span: Data from a representative sample of German-speaking adults living in Switzerland. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1156. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01156

Mathews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2007). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6722.001.0001

Mavroveli, S., & Sánchez-Ruiz, M. J. (2011). Trait emotional intelligence influences on academic achievement and school behavior. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(1), 112–134. https://doi.org/10.1348/2044-8279.002009

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications (pp. 3–31). Basic Books.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2002). MSCEIT user’s manual. Multi-Health Systems. https://doi.org/10.1037/t00392-000

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2016). Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? American Psychological Association.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2016). The ability model of emotional intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), 290–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916639667

McLaughlin, K. A., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Hilt, L. M. (2020). Emotion dysregulation and adolescent cyberbullying: Implications for prevention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 67(2), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.03.002

Mickewright, R., & Smith, P. K. (2024). Emotional intelligence profiles and cyber-victimization in educational settings. Education Sciences, 14(9), 971. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090971

Mihari, M. A., Megawati, R., Sulistiani, E., & Rohmatillah, R. (2023). Cognitive empathy and its impact on adolescent cyberbullying behavior. Asian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 4(2), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42380-024-00268-z

Neumann, D. L., Chan, R. C., & Boyle, G. J. (2022). Digital empathy: Conceptual framework and educational implications. Computers & Education, 183, Article 104523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104523

Nixon, C. L. (2014). Current perspectives: The impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 5, 143–158. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S36456

Petrides, K. V. (2009). Technical manual for the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaires (TEIQue). London Psychometric Laboratory. https://doi.org/10.1037/t08161-000

Petrides, K. V., Mikolajczak, M., Mavroveli, S., Sanchez-Ruiz, M. J., Furnham, A., & Pérez-González, J. C. (2016). Developments in trait emotional intelligence research. Emotion Review, 8(4), 335–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073916650493

Petrides, K. V., Pita, R., & Kokkinaki, F. (2007). The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space. British Journal of Psychology, 98(2), 273–289. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712606X120618

Ramadan, O. M. E., Alruwaili, M. M., Alruwaili, A. N., Elsharkawy, N. B., Abdelaziz, E. M., El Badawy Ezzat, R. E. S., & El-Nasr, E. M. S. (2024). Digital dilemma of cyberbullying victimization among high school students: Prevalence, risk factors, and associations with stress and mental well-being. Children, 11(6), Article 634. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11060634

Rauf, A., & Tahira, S. (2023). The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Students' Learning at the Secondary Level. Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 11(1), 10–22. https://doi.org/10.52131/pjhss.2023.1101.2017

Ribble, M., & Bailey, G. (2007). Digital citizenship in schools: Nine elements all students should know. International Society for Technology in Education.

Sainz, G. M., & Hanna, A. (2023). Youth digital activism, social media and human rights education: The Fridays for Future movement. Human Rights Education Review, 6(1), 116–136. https://doi.org/10.7577/hrer.4958

Schramm, H., & Hartmann, T. (2008). The PSI process scales: A new measure to assess the intensity and breadth of parasocial processes. Communications, 33(4), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1515/COMM.2008.025

Shahzada, G., & Ghani, U. (2022). Role of emotional intelligence components in predicting academic adjustment among adolescents. Current Psychology, 41, 6933–6944. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01194-0

Shanwal, V. K., & Sharma, N. (2021). Role of emotional intelligence in managing digital learning stress among adolescents. Journal of Psychology and Education, 58(2), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.17762/pae.v58i2.1092

Slonje, R., & Smith, P. K. (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00611.x

Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x

Stewart, R., Atkinson, L., & Weingarten, E. (2022). Digital empathy and youth online interactions: A review of the literature. Journal of Youth Studies, 25(4), 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2022.2033440

StopBullying.gov. (n.d.). What is Cyberbullying? https://www.stopbullying.gov/cyberbullying/what-is-it

Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(3), 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.

Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.014

Topcu, Ç., & Erdur-Baker, Ö. (2010). The revised cyber bullying inventory (RCBI): Validity and reliability studies. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 660–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.161

Walther, J. B. (1992). Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A relational perspective. Communication Research, 19(1), 52–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365092019001003

Walther, J. B. (2007). Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication: Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language, and cognition. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(5), 2538–2557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2006.05.002

Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Nansel, T. R. (2019). School bullying among adolescents in the United States: Physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(4), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.021

Wiederhold, B. K. (2020). Digital empathy. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23(5), 289. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.29199.editorial

Wilantika, D., Wati, M., & Anisa, R. (2022). Empathy, self-esteem, and cyberbullying in vocational high school students. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 9(4), 541–552. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375433944_Empathy_Self-esteem_and_Cyberbullying_in_vocational_high_school_students

Wright, M. F., & Wachs, S. (2019). Moderation of associations between peer victimization and bystander intervention by digital empathy in early adolescence. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(12), 798–804. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0375

Zhou, H., Wu, X., & Zeng, M. (2023). Digital empathy interventions to reduce adolescent cyberbullying: A systematic review. Journal of Adolescence, 98, 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2023.02.004

Zych, I., Farrington, D. P., Llorent, V. J., & Ttofi, M. M. (2019). Empathy and callous–unemotional traits in different bullying roles: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(1), 82–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650186