Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Project-Based Learning in College Biology Education for the Development of Higher-Order Thinking Skills

Background/purpose. Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) development represents a critical challenge in biology higher education. While Project-Based Learning (PjBL) shows promise, empirical evidence remains fragmented across individual studies. This meta-analysis systematically synthesized evidence on PjBL effectiveness in developing HOTS among biology students and explored moderating factors influencing outcomes.

Materials/methods. A comprehensive literature search across five databases following PRISMA guidelines yielded 2,847 records. Rigorous screening identified 42 high-quality experimental studies encompassing 5,247 undergraduate biology students across 18 countries. Meta-analytic procedures included standardized mean differences calculation, heterogeneity assessment, moderator analyses, and publication bias evaluation.

Results. Meta-analytic synthesis revealed a large overall effect size (d = 0.847, 95% CI: 0.692-1.002, p < 0.001) favoring PjBL interventions over traditional instruction methods. Domain-specific analyses demonstrated consistently large effects across cognitive (d = 0.923), psychomotor (d = 0.862), and affective (d = 0.756) dimensions of HOTS development. Moderate heterogeneity (I² = 68.4%) reflected meaningful variation in implementation approaches while maintaining coherence sufficient for pooled estimation. Sensitivity analyses confirmed robustness of findings across different study characteristics, with no evidence of significant publication bias detected through funnel plot analysis and statistical testing.

Conclusion. This meta-analysis provides compelling evidence that Project-Based Learning represents a highly effective pedagogical intervention for developing Higher-Order Thinking Skills in biology higher education contexts. The large, consistent, and robust effects observed across multiple domains and diverse implementation contexts support widespread adoption of well-designed PjBL interventions as a transformative strategy for preparing biology students to meet contemporary scientific challenges and collaborative problem-solving requirements.

Keywords: Project-based learning, higher-order thinking skills, biology education; meta-analysis, higher education

References

Abdurrahman, O., Soeharto, S., Kadir, A., An-nahidl, N. A., Yayang, O., Mariah, S., Westri, D., & Cahyandaru, P. (2025). Social Sciences & Humanities Open The path to teaching Excellence: Examining self-efficacy of pre-service teachers during school internship programs in Indonesia. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 11(May), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101619

Las, E., Ljalikova, A., & Jung, M. (2023). CLIL teacher beliefs emerge as they work in tandem. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 11(2), 229–254. https://doi.org/10.1075/jicb.22001.ala

AAAS. (2011). Vision and change in undergraduate biology education: A call to action. American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., ... & Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.

Ansari, D., & Coch, D. (2006). Bridges over troubled waters: Education and cognitive neuroscience. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(4), 146-151.

Arum, R., & Roksa, J. (2011). Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses. University of Chicago Press.

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Longmans, Green.

Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 369-398.

Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2017). Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

Bramer, W. M., Rethlefsen, M. L., Kleijnen, J., & Franco, O. H. (2017). Optimal database combinations for literature searches in systematic reviews: A prospective exploratory study. Systematic Reviews, 6(1), 245.

Brookhart, S. M. (2010). How to assess higher-order thinking skills in your classroom. ASCD.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

Buck Institute for Education. (2018). Project-based learning: A guide to standards-focused project-based learning. Buck Institute for Education.

Chen, C. H., & Yang, Y. C. (2019). Revisiting the effects of project-based learning on students' academic achievement: A meta-analysis investigating moderators. Educational Research Review, 26, 71-81.

Chen, S., Zhu, J., Cheng, M., & Liu, Q. (2020). Enhanced learning in project-based learning through virtual reality technology. Computers & Education, 157, 103976.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Condliffe, B., Quint, J., Visher, M. G., Bangser, M. R., Drohojowska, S., Saco, L., & Nelson, E. (2017). Project-based learning: A literature review. MDRC.

Cooper, H., Hedges, L. V., & Valentine, J. C. (Eds.). (2019). The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (3rd ed.). Russell Sage Foundation.

Crowe, A., Dirks, C., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2008). Biology in bloom: Implementing Bloom's taxonomy to enhance student learning in biology. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 7(4), 368-381.

Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., & Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13(5), 533-568.

Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3-4), 327-350.

Dwi, M., Sudigdo, A., & Martia, D. (2024). Analysis of Reading Interest in Grade IV in State Elementary School Pengilon Temanggung Regency. Journal of Language, Literature, and Cultural Dynamics, 1(02), 65–71.

English, M. C., & Kitsantas, A. (2013). Supporting student self-regulated learning in problem-and project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7(2), 6.

Ertmer, P. A., & Simons, K. D. (2006). Jumping the PBL implementation hurdle: Supporting the efforts of K–12 teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1(1), 5.

Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410-8415.

Furtak, E. M., Seidel, T., Iverson, H., & Briggs, D. C. (2012). Experimental and quasi-experimental studies of inquiry-based science teaching: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 82(3), 300-329.

Gijbels, D., Dochy, F., Van den Bossche, P., & Segers, M. (2005). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis from the angle of assessment. Review of Educational Research, 75(1), 27-61.

Guo, P., Saab, N., Post, L. S., & Admiraal, W. (2020). A review of project-based learning in higher education: Student outcomes and measures. Educational Research Review, 29, 100314.

Hart Research Associates. (2018). Fulfilling the American dream: Liberal education and the future of work. Association of American Colleges and Universities.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.

Higgins, J. P., Altman, D. G., Gøtzsche, P. C., Jüni, P., Moher, D., Oxman, A. D., ... & Sterne, J. A. (2011). The Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ, 343, d5928.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99-107.

Hoffmann, T. C., Glasziou, P. P., Boutron, I., Milne, R., Perera, R., Moher, D., ... & Michie, S. (2014). Better reporting of interventions: Template for intervention description and replication (TIDieR) checklist and guide. BMJ, 348, g1687.

Howard-Jones, P. A. (2014). Neuroscience and education: Myths and messages. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(12), 817-824.

King, F. J., Goodson, L., & Rohani, F. (2019). Higher order thinking skills: Definition, teaching strategies, assessment. Educational Research Quarterly, 42(3), 15-32.

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.

Kokotsaki, D., Menzies, V., & Wiggins, A. (2016). Project-based learning: A review of the literature. Improving Schools, 19(3), 267-277.

Krajcik, J. S., & Shin, N. (2014). Project-based learning. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (2nd ed., pp. 275-297). Cambridge University Press.

Larmer, J., Mergendoller, J., & Boss, S. (2015). Setting the standard for project based learning. ASCD.

Loyens, S. M., Jones, S. H., Mikkers, J., & van Gog, T. (2015). Problem-based learning as a facilitator of conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 38, 34-42.

Loyens, S. M., & Rikers, R. M. (2017). Instruction based on inquiry. In R. E. Mayer & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning and instruction (2nd ed., pp. 394-414). Routledge.

McHugh, M. L. (2012). Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic. Biochemia Medica, 22(3), 276-282.

Mergendoller, J. R., Maxwell, N. L., & Bellisimo, Y. (2006). The effectiveness of problem-based instruction: A comparative study of instructional methods and student characteristics. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1(2), 5.

Mergendoller, J. R., & Thomas, J. W. (2005). Managing project based learning: Principles from the field. Buck Institute for Education.

Methley, A. M., Campbell, S., Chew-Graham, C., McNally, R., & Cheraghi-Sohi, S. (2014). PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: A comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Services Research, 14(1), 579.

National Research Council. (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press.

National Research Council. (2018). How people learn II: Learners, contexts, and cultures. National Academies Press.

Nehm, R. H., & Ridgway, J. (2011). What do experts and novices "see" in evolutionary problems? Evolution: Education and Outreach, 4(4), 666-679.

NGSS Lead States. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states. National Academies Press.

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71.

Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2019). Framework for 21st century learning. Battelle for Kids.

Pellegrino, J. W., & Hilton, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. National Academies Press.

Pigott, T. D., & Polanin, J. R. (2020). Methodological guidance paper: High-quality meta-analysis in a systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 90(1), 24-46.

Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., Fromm, J., & Wohlgenannt, I. (2020). A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda. Computers & Education, 147, 103778.

Savery, J. R. (2015). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Essential Readings in Problem-Based Learning, 9, 5-15.

Sawyer, R. K. (Ed.). (2014). The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Schmidt, H. G., Rotgans, J. I., & Yew, E. H. (2011). The process of problem-based learning: What works and why. Medical Education, 45(8), 792-806.

Schmidt, H. G., van der Molen, H. T., Te Winkel, W. W., & Wijnen, W. H. (2009). Constructivist, problem-based learning does work: A meta-analysis of curricular comparisons involving a single medical school. Educational Psychologist, 44(4), 227-249.

Servant-Miklos, V. F. (2019). The Harvard connection: How the case method spawned problem-based learning at McMaster University. Health Professions Education, 5(3), 163-171.

Shamseer, L., Moher, D., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., ... & Stewart, L. A. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: Elaboration and explanation. BMJ, 350, g7647.

Shavelson, R. J. (2010). Measuring college learning responsibly: Accountability in a new era. Stanford University Press.

Strobel, J., & van Barneveld, A. (2009). When is PBL more effective? A meta-synthesis of meta-analyses comparing PBL to conventional classrooms. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 3(1), 4.

Taufik, O. A., & Pamungkas, O. Y. (2025). Mapping Determinants of Success through Information Systems in Higher Education: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Educational Process: International Journal, 33(5), 505–519.

Theobald, E. J., Hill, M. J., Tran, E., Agrawal, S., Arroyo, E. N., Behling, S., ... & Freeman, S. (2020). Active learning narrows achievement gaps for underrepresented students in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and math. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(12), 6476-6483.

Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. Buck Institute for Education.

Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. Jossey-Bass.

van Merriënboer, J. J., & Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 22(2), 215-246.

Vision & Change. (2011). A call to action: Final report. American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Walker, A., & Leary, H. (2009). A problem based learning meta analysis: Differences across problem types, implementation types, disciplines, and assessment levels. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 3(1), 6.

Wilson, D. B., & Lipsey, M. W. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Sage Publications.

Announcement

EDUPIJ Citation Metrics

EDUPIJ News!