From Centralized Control to Co-Creation: Rethinking Educational Governance in the Digital Era

Background/purpose. The sustainability of educational systems in the digital era requires not only technological innovation but also a fundamental restructuring of governance to ensure long-term equity, adaptability, and inclusion. This study examines Indonesia’s educational transition through Belajar.id, the national digital platform introduced under the Merdeka Belajar (“Freedom to Learn”) initiative, which seeks to disrupt hierarchical governance and foster multi-stakeholder co-creation. The study’s main purpose is to explore whether digital platforms like Belajar.id can meaningfully advance sustainable educational transformation or risk reinforcing existing bureaucratic constraints.

Materials/methods. This research employs a conceptual analysis approach, integrating theories of network governance, value co-creation, game theory, and trust-building to construct a multi-dimensional framework. The study synthesizes these perspectives to examine the strategic interactions among administrators, teachers, and policymakers, providing a theoretical lens to assess the opportunities and challenges embedded in Indonesia’s digital educational reforms.

Results. The analysis reveals that while Belajar.id has the potential to democratize decision-making, enhance resource distribution, and enable collaborative innovation, its impact is constrained by persistent challenges, including digital inequity, cultural resistance, and fragmented policy implementation. The study highlights how trust dynamics, incentive structures, and cultural adaptation are critical determinants of whether digital reforms catalyze meaningful co-creation or devolve into superficial technological upgrades.

Conclusion. The study concludes that sustainable digital educational transformation requires a holistic strategy that aligns governance structures, builds institutional and interpersonal trust, and embeds culturally responsive policies. The Indonesian case offers valuable insights for international audiences seeking to leverage digital innovation to promote equitable and adaptive educational ecosystems.

Keywords: Digitalization, educational governance, co-creation, institutional trust, comparative education

References

Abdallah, A. K., Al Khanbooli, B., Al Kaabi, N. A. M., & Al Awadhi, M. A. (2024). Bridging Innovative Technologies With Progressive Educational Governance. In Cutting-Edge Innovations in Teaching, Leadership, Technology, and Assessment (pp. 84-99). IGI Global Scientific Publishing.

Abrams, L. C., Cross, R., Lesser, E., & Levin, D. Z. (2003). Nurturing interpersonal trust in knowledge-sharing networks. Academy of Management Perspectives, 17(4), 64-77. https://doi.org/10.5465/ame.2003.11851845

Adityas, M. T. (2022). The Self in Struggle: Indonesian Secondary School Teachers’ Multiplicity of Voices Amidst Competing Discourses of Tolerance [Master’s thesis, University of Auckland]. https://bpb-ap-se2.wpmucdn.com/blogs.auckland.ac.nz/dist/c/922/files/2023/09/Thesis-M-Tolkhah-Adityas-919097823.pdf

Aithal, P. S., & Maiya, A. K. (2023). Innovations in Higher Education Industry–Shaping the Future. International Journal of Case Studies in Business, IT, and Education (IJCSBE), 7(4), 283-311. https://doi.org/10.47992/ijcsbe.2581.6942.0321

Al Naim, A. F. (2023). Enhancing workforce productivity and organizational agility through digital transformation: Role of technological integration, skills development initiatives and low organizational trust. The Journal of Modern Project Management, 11(1), 324-341.

Antonio, L. (2024). Lecturer Resistance to The Development of Digital Technology in Learning In The Modern Education Era. International Journal of Christian Education and Philosophical Inquiry, 1(4), 55-67.

Antoniou, P. E., Pears, M., Schiza, E. C., Frangoudes, F., Pattichis, C. S., Wharrad, H., ... & Konstantinidis, S. T. (2023). Eliciting co-creation best practices of virtual reality reusable e-resources. Virtual Worlds. 2, 75-89. https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds2010005

Axelrod, R. (1984). The evolution of cooperation. New York: Basic Books.

Banks, J. A. (2009). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives (7th ed.). Wiley.

Bannister, F., & Connolly, R. (2020). The future ain’t what it used to be: Forecasting the impact of ICT on the public sphere. Government Information Quarterly, 37(1), 101410.

Bennett, E. E., & McWhorter, R. R. (2019). Social movement learning and social innovation: Empathy, agency, and the design of solutions to unmet social needs. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 21(2), 224-249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422319827939

Bodrogini, P. W., Putri, M. S. L., & Nambiar, D. (2021). Support for the development of a remote learning and digital skills strategy for the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture. HEART (Health & Education Advice & Resource Team). Retrieved from https://archive.ids.ac.uk/heart/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Remote-Learning-Review-and-Strategy-Development-Final-Report.pdf

Bovaird, T. (2007). Beyond engagement and participation: User and community coproduction of public services. Public Administration Review, 67(5), 846–860. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00773.x

Brand, D., & Rolland, M. (2018). Case Study—Partners for Possibility: Co-Production of Education. In T. Brandson & B. Verschuere (Eds.) Co-Production and Co-Creation: Engaging citizens in public services. pp. 174-176. Routledge.

Brown, T., Wilson, L., & Carter, R. (2021). Data-driven insights in education: Bridging gaps with learning analytics. Journal of Educational Research, 29(4), 56-70.

Brunetti, F., Matt, D. T., Bonfanti, A., De Longhi, A., Pedrini, G., & Orzes, G. (2020). Digital transformation challenges: strategies emerging from a multi-stakeholder approach. The TQM Journal, 32(4), 697-724. https://doi.org/10.1108/tqm-12-2019-0309

Bush, T. (2007). Educational leadership and management: Theory, policy and practice. South African journal of education, 27(3), 391-406.

Chen, L., Tong, T. W., Tang, S., & Han, N. (2022). Governance and design of digital platforms: a review and future research directions on a meta-organization. Journal of management, 48(1), 147-184. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063211045023

Choi, J., Dutz, M. A., & Usman, Z. (2020). The future of work in Africa: Harnessing the potential of digital technologies for all. World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1445-7

Cobb, C. (2015). The project manager’s guide to mastering Agile: Principles and practices for an adaptive approach. Wiley.

Collins, A., & Halverson, R. (2009). Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America. Teachers College Press.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Teachers College Press.

Fox, K., Vignare, K., Yuan, L., Tesene, M., Beltran, K., Schweizer, H., Brokos, M., & Seaborn, R. (2021, December 14). Strategies for implementing digital learning infrastructure to support equitable outcomes: A case-based guidebook for institutional leaders. Every Learner Everywhere. Retrieved from https://www.everylearnereverywhere.org/resources/

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.

Fullan, M. (2013). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). Teachers College Press.

Fung, A., Graham, M., & Weil, D. (2007). Full Disclosure: The Perils and Promise of Transparency. Cambridge University Press.

Gerring, J. (2012). Social Science Methodology: A Unified Framework (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139022224

Giroux, H. A. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Bergin & Garvey.

Golden, G. (2020). Education policy evaluation: Surveying the OECD landscape. OECD Education Working Papers, (236), 0_1-73. https://doi.org/10.1787/9f127490-en

Gorski, P. C. (2017). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap. Teachers College Press.

Hapsari, T. I., & Kismartini, K. (2023). Institutional transformation in Indonesian public sector: Policy innovation in digital-based education services. Corporate Law & Governance Review, 7(1), 87-97. https://doi.org/10.22495/clgrv7i1p8

Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons: the population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality. science, 162(3859), 1243-1248. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.162.3859.1243

Hargreaves, A. (2020). Moving: A memoir of education and social mobility. Solution Tree Press.

Heifetz, R. A., Grashow, A., & Linsky, M. (2009). The practice of adaptive leadership: Tools and tactics for changing your organization and the world. Harvard Business Review Press.

Herden, C. J., Alliu, E., Cakici, A., Cormier, T., Deguelle, C., Gambhir, S., ... & Edinger-Schons, L. M. (2021, March). “Corporate Digital Responsibility” New corporate responsibilities in the digital age. In Sustainability Management Forum| NachhaltigkeitsManagementForum (Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 13-29). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Homann, K., & Suchanek, A. (2005). Ökonomik: Eine Einführung. Mohr Siebeck.

Hood, A. P. (2011). The increasing standardization of curriculum and instruction in two central-Iowa elementary schools and its effect on teacher autonomy and creativity (Doctoral dissertation, Drake University).

Hora, M. T., Bouwma-Gearhart, J., & Park, H. J. (2017). Data driven decision-making in the era of accountability: Fostering faculty data cultures for learning. The Review of Higher Education, 40(3), 391-426. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2017.0013

Hunaepi, H., & Suharta, I. (2024). Transforming education in Indonesia: The impact and challenges of the Merdeka belajar curriculum. Path of Science, 10(6), 5026-5039. https://doi.org/10.22178/pos.105-31

INTOSAI Development Initiative. (2023). Addressing the lack of access, infrastructure, and teacher trainings for distance learning in general education after COVID-19: Recommendations from SAI Georgia. International Journal of Government Auditing. Retrieved from https://intosaijournal.org/journal-entry/addressing-the-lack-of-access-infrastructure-and-teacher-trainings-for-distance-learning-in-general-education-after-covid-19-recommendations-from-sai-georgia/

Jaakkola, E. (2020). Designing conceptual articles: Four approaches. AMS Review, 10(1), 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-020-00161-0

Johnson, P., Martinez, A., & Evans, C. (2022). AI in education: Tailoring learning through technology. Educational Technology Review, 34(2), 78-92

Kaarakainen, M.-T., Kivinen, O., & Vainio, T. (2018). Performance-based testing for ICT skills assessing: A case study of students and teachers’ ICT skills in Finnish schools. Universal Access in the Information Society, 17(2), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-017-0553-9

Kickert, W. J. M., Klijn, E. H., & Koppenjan, J. F. M. (1997). Managing Complex Networks: Strategies for the Public Sector. Sage.

Laufer, M., Deacon, B., Mende, M. A., & Schäfer, L. O. (2025). Leading with trust: How university leaders can foster innovation with educational technology through organizational trust. Innovative Higher Education, 50(1), 303-327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-024-09733-5

Lund, D. H. (2018). Co-creation in urban governance: From inclusion to innovation. Scandinavian Journal of Public Administration, 22(2), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.58235/sjpa.v22i2.11422

Mandala, P., & Pradhan, P. (2024). Innovative Strategies on DIKSHA Portal: An Experimental Study of Impact on Inclusive Student Engagement. International Journal of Religion, 5(10), 1068–1075. https://doi.org/10.61707/hsddgw24

Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. ASCD.

McGinn, N., & Welsh, T. (1999). Decentralization of education: why, when, what and how?. UNESCO.

McGrath, K. (2020). Agile and lean concepts for teaching and learning. Routledge.

Meng, Y., Xu, W., Liu, Z., He, Y., Xie, X., & Ma, R. (2024). Scientometric analyses of digital inequity in education: Problems and solutions. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11(1), 1052. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03480-w

Mhlongo, S., Mbatha, K., Ramatsetse, B., & Dlamini, R. (2023). Challenges, opportunities, and prospects of adopting and using smart digital technologies in learning environments: An iterative review. Heliyon, 9(6). e16348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16348

Nash, J. (1950). Equilibrium points in n-person games. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 36(1), 48-49. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.36.1.48

Nelson, J. L., Hegtvedt, K. A., Haardörfer, R., & Hayward, J. L. (2019). Trust and respect at work: Justice antecedents and the role of coworker dynamics. Work and occupations, 46(3), 307-338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888419835261

Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511807763

Putri, A. D., & Hastjarjo, S. (2023). Bureaucratic Reform of Education in the Era of Society 5.0: Implementation of Digital Literacy Learning. AVITI: Journal of Digital Learning and Innovation, 1(2), 95–102. https://analysisdata.co.id/index.php/AVITI/article/view/101/96

Räisänen, J., Ojala, A., & Tuovinen, T. (2021). Building trust in the sharing economy: Current approaches and future considerations. Journal of cleaner production, 279, 123724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123724

Reimers, F. M., & Chung, C. K. (Eds.). (2019). Teaching and learning for the twenty-first century: Educational goals, policies, and curricula from six nations. Harvard education press.

Rigby, D. K., Sutherland, J., & Noble, A. (2018). Agile at scale. Harvard Business Review, 96(3), 88–96.

Rothstein, B. (2011). The Quality of Government: Corruption, Social Trust, and Inequality in International Perspective. University of Chicago Press.

Selwyn, N., Hillman, T., Eynon, R., Ferreira, G., Knox, J., Macgilchrist, F., & Sancho-Gil, J. M. (2020). What’s next for Ed-Tech? Critical hopes and concerns for the 2020s. Learning, Media and Technology, 45(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2020.1694945

Senge, P. M. (2000). Schools that learn: A fifth discipline fieldbook for educators, parents, and everyone who cares about education. Doubleday.

Stafford Ocansey, T., & Sharma, A. (2019). DIKSHA in Maharashtra Needs Assessment Report (ICT India Working Paper No. 5, CSD Working Paper Series: Towards a New Indian Model of Information and Communications Technology-Led Growth and Development). Center for Sustainable Development, Earth Institute, Columbia University. https://csd.columbia.edu/sites/csd.columbia.edu/files/content/docs/ICT%20India/Papers/ICT_India_Working_Paper_5.pdf

Starratt, R. J. (2003). Centering educational administration: Cultivating meaning, community, responsibility. Routledge.

Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2011). A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination for a world of constant change. CreateSpace.

Timotheou, S., Miliou, O., Dimitriadis, Y., Papadimitriou, M., Karatrantou, A., & Lionarakis, A. (2023). Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation: A literature review. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 6695–6726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11431-8

Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674044524

von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1944). Theory of games and economic behavior. Princeton University Press.

Warschauer, M. (2004). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6699.001.0001

Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization (A. M. Henderson & T. Parsons, Trans.). Oxford University Press.

Williamson, B., & Hogan, A. (2020). Commercialisation and privatisation in/of education in the context of Covid-19. Education International, Brussels, Belguim. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/216577/

Yuan, R. (2017). Appropriating national curriculum standards in classroom teaching: Experiences of novice language teachers in China. International Journal of Educational Research, 83, 55-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2017.02.011

Zucker, L. G. (1986). Production of trust: Institutional sources of economic structure, 1840–1920. Research in Organizational Behavior, 8, 53–111.

Announcement

EDUPIJ Citation Metrics

EDUPIJ News!